The relationship of vegetarianism with individual and collective well-being

Resumen

English version Vegetarianism goes beyond the boundaries of a specific dietary form since it embraces a more conscious way of life for its positive correlation with the well-being of society and the environment. Therefore, vegetarianism constitutes an important area of study, as it actively contributes to the preservation of global well-being. Our aim in the present research is to analyse vegetarianism from the lens of subjective well-being, nature connectedness, as well as to study the agents that strengthen adherence to vegetarian diets in order to build more sustainable societies over time. Our approach focuses on environmental commitment factors such as nature connectedness and pro-environmental behaviour, because both exhibit unique ties with subjective well-being and vegetarian adherence that leads us to develop and implement policy interventions, which cultivate these experiences in individuals, via adoption of more ecological lifestyles. Accordingly, we examine the following aspects of vegetarianism: its relationship with subjective well-being, the role that nature connectedness plays on the previous link, and the influence of environmental commitment on vegetarian adherence in order to promote individual and collective well-being. In this thesis, we employ the concept of collective well-being to include ecological wellness, animal welfare, and the prosperity of society and future generations. More specifically, first, we study the correlation between vegetarian commitment, evaluating the relationship of vegetarian identity and vegetarian dietary pattern, with their levels of subjective well-being, conceptualized as life satisfaction, emotional well-being, and subjective vitality, and we compare the obtained results with the status of omnivores. Second, we study the role that nature connectedness plays in the previous link between vegetarian commitment and subjective well-being. And finally, we analyse the influence of pro-environmental behaviour on short and long-term vegetarian adherence (consistency and continuity with a meat-reduced diet) of people with lower meat consumption in association to nature connectedness and political orientation so as to identify the promoting factors of vegetarian adherence from a lasting perspective. The state of the art of the present thesis is that we examine vegetarianism, differentiating the vegetarian identity (psychological factor) from the vegetarian scale (behavioural pattern) in relation to three dimensions of subjective well-being (life satisfaction, emotional well-being, and subjective vitality) exploring thus the cognitive, hedonic, and eudaimonic aspects of well-being, in a sample of university students in Spain. Also, to our knowledge, it is the first time that nature connectedness has been employed in the literature as a means to better understand the relationship between subjective well-being and vegetarianism, as well as pro-environmental behaviour as a predictor of vegetarian adherence in its both facets. In the following paragraphs, we summarize the most relevant hits of evidence that served as triggering factors for the development of this doctoral dissertation and the proposal of the corresponding hypotheses. Starting with the definition of vegetarianism, we highlight that it is a subject with a strong multifaceted component, given its dynamic nature that encompasses political, ethical, social, environmental, and human perspectives. Consequently, vegetarianism can be understood as a dietary transition that contributes to building healthier, more conscious, and evolved societies, via reduced consumption of animals, prioritizing instead fresh plant-based foods, which constitutes a way of life (Lea, Crawford & Worsley, 2006; Shapiro, 2015; Nezlek, Forestell & Newman, 2018). From an environmental perspective, vegetarianism supports the optimal maintenance of planetary health due to low intake of animal-based products, and endows a sustainable diet capable of diminishing water and soil pollution, as well as the biodiversity loss. In addition, it assists in dealing with other challenges associated with mass production systems of meat-related foods and their growing demand (Pimentel & Pimentel, 2003; Hallström, Röös & Börjesson, 2014; Álvaro, 2017). Furthermore, at the individual level, we find various sources suggesting that a balanced vegetarian diet is beneficial for human health during all life stages, providing greater vitality and reducing mortality (Janda & Trocchia, 2001; Nobis, 2008; Álvaro, 2017). At the social level, vegetarianism positively influences animal rights, welfare, and the reduction of world hunger (Kalof et al., 1999) and also contributes to saving on expenses associated with public health due to a healthier and more sustainable diet (Maurer, 2010; Springmann et al., 2016). From an ethical-political perspective, vegetarianism challenges the dominant food ideology, creating a vehicle for social and cultural emancipation (Jabs, Sobal & Devine, 2000; Morris & Kirwan, 2006). Moreover, the vegetarian citizen-consumer employs his/her force to produce a social change through the ethical purchase of food and boycott, increasing thus collective responsibility via individual engagement (Micheletti, 2003; Johnston, 2008). In this way, the responsible consumer participates in the creation of fairer production processes and greener societies to alleviate issues of uneven economic growth, environmental challenge, and global social injustice (Guthman, 2003; Sassatelli & Davolio, 2010; Johnston, Szabo & Rodney, 2011; Ghvanidze et al., 2016). As a result, when it comes to collective well-being, vegetarianism plays an important positive role within an improved management of our natural and social resources. Nevertheless, the vegetarian commitment also associates with a gradual transformation of personal identity. That is, vegetarian individuals adopt a new belief system, supported by ethical motivations, which encourages them to perceive the world in a more reflective way, and distances them from the mainstream culture (Twigg 1979; Beardsworth & Keil, 1992; Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017a). As a consequence and despite the fact that vegetarians generally have greater physical well-being and pro-collective commitment than omnivores, they tend to experience emotional states distant from happiness (Baines, Powers & Brown, 2007; Michalak, Zhang & Jacobi, 2012; MacInnis & Hodson, 2017; Forestell & Nezlek, 2018), which makes the link with subjective well-being more complex. On the one hand, the relationship between vegetarianism and physical health is positive when balanced dietary guidelines are followed, leading to higher levels of health, longevity, and reduced levels of various kind of disease. However, when vegetarianism is the consequence of an eating disorder, the association with physical and psychological well-being becomes negative (Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1997; Lindeman & Stark, 1999; Lindeman, 2002; Timko, Hormes & Chubski, 2012; Zuromski et al., 2015). Likewise, when we study vegetarianism as a healthy diet in relation to subjective well-being, it tends to be positive (Weinstein & Anton, 1982; Blanchflower, Oswald & Stewart-Brown, 2013; Agarwal et al., 2015; Mujcic & Oswald, 2016; Conner et al., 2017; Jain et al., 2020). Yet we find the opposite tendency in the relation when analysing vegetarianism from the angle of internalized vegetarian identity. In this bunch of research we allocate wide evidence reporting that being a vegetarian leads to reduced levels of subjective well-being (Baines, Powers & Brown, 2007; Michalak, Zhang & Jacobi, 2012; MacInnis & Hodson, 2017; Forestell & Nezlek, 2018; Lavallee et al., 2019) with a minority of cases of positive evidence (Link, Hussaini & Jacobson, 2008; Beezhold & Johnston, 2012). Taking into account multiple benefits of vegetarianism on collective well-being, we believe that it is crucial to study more in depth the complex relationship of vegetarianism with subjective well-being, which frames the basis for the present research. Consequently, we approach the challenge from the perspective of the relationship with the external environment and other living beings. In this vein, past evidence suggests positive correlations between people related to nature and vegetarian lifestyles that are more compassionate and respectful with the planet (Twigg 1976; Beardsworth & Keil, 1992; Fox, 2000; Fox & Ward, 2008) and identifies possible ways to increase levels of subjective well-being via nature connectedness (Ericson et al., 2014). Furthermore, vegetarianism can serve as a means of finding life purpose or achieving a bigger goal for people who connect with nature (Nisbet, Zelenski & Murphy, 2011; Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017b). Considering the positive influence of the connection with nature on individual and collective well-being, we apply this approach to better understand the phenomenom of vegetarian happiness. On the other hand, promoting vegetarianism for its pro-environmental and healthy assets would be counterproductive if people do not embrace consistently dietary commitment to meat avoidance in a lasting way. Moreover, most vegetarians admit having eaten meat since adopting vegetarian lifestyle. Therefore, we recognize certain gaps in the literature on vegetarian adherence, in which identifying as a vegetarian does not guarantee the real reduction of meat intake, and we find that a low vegetarian adherence jeopardizes the sustainability postulates proposed by vegetarianism (Ruby, 2012; Rosenfeld & Tomiyama, 2020). As a result of it, we consider vitally important analysing factors other than vegetarian identity to promote short-term consistency and long-term continuity with meat-reduced diets. Our attention here is directed to study the relationship from the perspective of environmental commitment, since vegetarians tend to relate better to the environment than other food identities. In this line, we highlight that adherence to a vegetarian diet is essential for a lasting collective well-being because without a real meat intake reduction, all the ecological premises of vegetarianism become theoretical beliefs that do not translate into effective strategies to preserve the planet. In this case, we are not only facing a threatened collective well-being, but also the negative perception of omnivores towards vegetarians that could be further intensified due to a weak vegetarian adherence (Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017a) and decrease the intention of people to continue with a sustainable dieting. Additionally, cognitive dissonance could be augmented if there exists a conflict between personal identity and actual behaviour in favour of meat consumption (Bastian & Loughnan, 2017) despite its devastating impact on the environment, other living beings, and human health. Therefore, another of our objectives is to examine the influence of pro-environmental behaviour to better conceive adherence to vegetarian diets and, possibly, provide a more simplified approach to support this sustainable form of dieting and contribute thus to individual and collective well-being from an ecological perspective. The most important aspect in the well-being research is possibly conveyed in its interconnection with individual and collective aspects where individuals can build and follow a solid model towards achieving higher levels of individual happiness and simultaneously helping in preserving ecological and social well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Therefore, in this thesis we investigate the aspect of vegetarianism in relation to subjective well-being, nature connectedness, pro-environmental behaviour, and vegetarian adherence from the perspective of vegetarians in Spain, in order to enrich the current knowledge on vegetarianism and identify more effective tools for environmental public policy. In doing so, we would at the same time support the Sustainable Development Goals designed by the United Nations to deal with the most imperative challenges of our current society within the scope of human well-being, environmental degradation, climate change, world hunger, inequality, peace, and justice (The United Nations, 2020). In addition, it is important to address the main motivations of the author to present this thesis. Personally, as a vegetarian and as a person connected to nature, I believe that this path towards a common well-being can provide humanity and the environment with new resources to create prosperous lifestyles for present and future generations. The key element underlying my decision, not only to adopt, but also to continue as a vegetarian, is the willingness to protect the integrity of our individual and collective well-being by experiencing vegetarianism as a more conscious movement, culture, and a way of life. In this way, we can generate a direct impact on human ecological awareness that is transferred to other consumption patterns in our current society living mostly in urban spaces. In light of the aforementioned reasons, I have built the motivational foundation for this PhD thesis and contributed to spreading awareness about the vegetarian paradigm among the academic spheres. Based on the established objectives as well as the background that supports this investigation, we formulate the following hypotheses. First, we expect a negative relationship between vegetarian commitment, measured as vegetarian identity and scale, and subjective well-being that would differ according to the happiness indicator under consideration. Second, we estimate that the connection with nature moderates the former relationship between vegetarianism and subjective well-being. And third, we propose that pro-environmental behaviour predicts vegetarian adherence, conceptualized as current consistency and future intention to continue with a meat-reduced diet. Furthermore, we hypothesize that pro-environmental behaviour mediates the relationship of vegetarian adherence with nature connectedness and political orientation. Regarding the methodology applied in this doctoral dissertation, we created a new database composed of 1068 students of different areas of expertise at the University of Granada who completed an online questionnaire in the second quarter of 2019. To contrast hypotheses 1 and 2 we analysed the global sample, while for hypothesis 3 we worked with the sample selecting only flexitarian and vegetarian profiles (in total 227 participants). In the descriptive statistics analyses, we used the Pearson's coefficient to test for the homogeneity of our data with respect to the mean. As regards the relationship between vegetarianism, nature connectedness, and subjective well-being (hypotheses 1 and 2), we ran a linear regression analysis using the ordinary least squares method and specified a different model for each dimension of well-being. The data analysis was performed with the statistical software Stata15. To test hypothesis 3, we analysed the predictors of the intention to continue with a meat-reduced diet in the near-future scenario (1-2 years) and the consistency with the diet in the last three days prior to survey. To do so, we performed a hierarchical logistic regression and an ordinary least squares regression, respectively, controlling for the food identity of flexitarian versus vegetarian profiles. In addition to the regression models, we carried out mediation analyses to identify whether pro-environmental behaviour acts as a mediator of the relationship between the connection with nature and/or political orientation and vegetarian adherence. The data analysis was performed with the statistical software R. Next, we summarize the most relevant results obtained from our estimates. Hypothesis 1 can be accepted for the dimension of life satisfaction taking into account the vegetarian scale and the identity of flexitarians. As regards emotional well-being, hypothesis 1 is also true for the identity of lacto-pesco vegetarians. However, our findings show that vegans do not experience reduced levels of cognitive or emotional well-being, which is opposed to our postulated hypothesis. Furthermore, we find that vegans are more vital than other food identities, which is in accordance with past evidence (Conner et al., 2017). Regarding vegetarian identity, our results support previous works that identified differences in the evidence assigning both positive and negative results in the link between vegetarianism and subjective well-being (Beezhold & Johnston, 2012; Forestell & Nezlek, 2018; Lavallee et al., 2019). Given that hypothesis 1 could not be accepted for all vegetarian identities, our results confirm the need to follow the suggestions of previous studies to analyse the results among vegans, flexitarians, and omnivores separately (Timko, Hormes & Chubski, 2012; Rosenfeld, 2018). To test hypothesis 2, we examined the combined effect of vegetarianism and nature connectedness through interactions. The results show that people highly connected to nature and following a diet with a high vegetarian scale experience a stronger subjective vitality. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the vegan identity achieves higher subjective well-being in its facets of life satisfaction and subjective vitality when a strong connection with nature is established. The identity of the lacto-pesco vegetarians, which in hypothesis 1 was associated with a lower emotional well-being, experiences a higher affective well-being in the new estimates once strongly related to nature. The models indicate that a higher level of nature connectedness is approximately 4 on a scale of 1 to 5, but in the case of lacto-pesco vegetarians, the level of nature connectedness must be very elevated (estimates indicate 4.9). As regards hypothesis 3, our study revealed three main findings. First, pro-environmental behaviour positively predicts vegetarian adherence, both in terms of short-term consistency and long-term intention to continue with the adherence to the meat-reduced diet. Second, pro-environmental behaviour mediates the link between connection with nature and vegetarian adherence, explaining why people who feel more related to nature commit stronger to the meat-reduced diet and are more likely to intend to continue with this diet in the near future (full mediation). Third, pro-environmental behaviour also mediates the link between political orientation and vegetarian adherence, explaining why people who self-identify more with left-wing are stronger committed to a diet reduced in meat (partial mediation) than people with right-wing orientation, and are also more likely to continue with the meat-reduced diet in the near future (full mediation). Therefore, we have found that pro-environmental behaviour is a unique predictor of vegetarian adherence in its both facets, above the effects of motivation, convenience, and demographic aspects, which provides us with promising implications on how to promote commitment to vegetarian diets with greater success. Our findings suggest that an effective strategy to encourage people to adhere to vegetarian diets is to make them value and participate in pro-environmental behaviour more in general, that is, to appreciate and carry out activities that benefit the global health of the planet. An interesting implication of this result is that we do not need to motivate individuals explicitly to follow a vegetarian diet so as to increase their vegetarian adherence. Our results present a direct political interpretation. Firstly, the diffusion that vegetarianism is beneficial for the environment should be accompanied by actions that at the same time increase people's connection with nature to experience greater subjective well-being. This is supported by evidence suggesting that by adopting lifestyles more connected to nature, one can achieve greater meaning in life (Michalak et al. 2012; Forestell & Nezlek, 2018). Consequently, by developing more conscious cultures we can foster people's well-being and life satisfaction (Dhandra, 2019), which we have confirmed from a vegetarian perspective. Second, our findings simplify policy interventions seeking promotion of sustainable lifestyles and can also enrich vegetarians with higher levels of subjective well-being via increased nature connectedness. Finally, within the scope of numerous political interpretations, we mention the spread of a culture oriented towards nature where the connection with the natural habitat encourages subjective well-being of specific vegetarian profiles, and a greater pro-environmental commitment strengthens vegetarian adherence, hence improving long-term collective wellness. This could be of particular interest in urban areas where the experience of individual connection with nature is low, which leads to decreased levels of individual and collective well-being (Nisbet, Zelenski & Murphy, 2011). Therefore, through the means of vegetarianism and its implicit interconnection with the natural environment (Fox, 2000), we could support sustainable activities in cities such as ecological gardening and create new spaces for the engagement of local communities, improving cooperation at the social and environmental levels as well as the consistency with vegetarian diets over time. In conclusion, vegetarianism constitutes not only a diet, but also frames a way of life and a social movement currently in expansion worldwide. In the present doctoral dissertation we have identified that the vegetarian happiness is a complex phenomenom due to its nuances interconnected with personal, social, and relational factors (objective 1). We found that the individual experience of a greater connection with nature can provide a possible trade-off for decreased levels of subjective well-being in specific vegetarian profiles (objective 2). In addition, by promoting pro-environmental behaviour, animal welfare, and the convenience of preparing vegetarian dishes, we can strengthen short and long-term vegetarian adherence that are necessary for a successful commitment with vegetarianism (objective 3). We believe that our novel findings accounting for the compound of vegetarianism, happiness, environmental commitment, and adherence to vegetarian diets may form the basis for future research, examining not only the influence of the reflective identity of vegetarians, but also their consciousness of the relationship they experience with nature, which, in turn, can support a more effective implementation of public policies for environmental preservation and general welfare management. By making people feel more connected with nature, they can enhance their levels of subjective well-being, which in turn also positively interacts with the ability of particular vegetarian identities to experience happiness. Accordingly, feeling more related to nature reinforces people's engagement in pro-environmental behaviour that has a positive influence on vegetarian adherence. This finding is supported by the stand introduced in the present thesis, in which we suggest that vegetarianism can be positively interrelated with individual and collective well-being and that the link can also be sustained from a long-term perspective. Therefore, we consider this discovery an attractive potential to further explore in multiple dimensions of our human activities in the transitional journey towards more conscious and happier societies. Resumen en Castellano La relación del vegetarianismo con el bienestar individual y colectivo El vegetarianismo hoy en día ha transcendido sus fronteras de una dieta específica hacia una forma de vida más consciente. Esto es debido a su positiva interrelación con el bienestar de la sociedad y del medio ambiente, y por ello constituye un área de estudio importante, ya que activamente participa en la preservación del bienestar global. Nuestro objetivo en la presente investigación es abordar el vegetarianismo desde la perspectiva del bienestar subjetivo, de la conexión con la naturaleza así como estudiar los agentes que fortalezcan la adherencia a las dietas vegetarianas para crear unas sociedades más sostenibles en el tiempo. Nuestro enfoque se centra en factores como la conexión con la naturaleza y el comportamiento pro-ambiental, porque ambos exhiben unos vínculos únicos con el bienestar subjetivo y la adherencia vegetariana lo que nos lleva a desarrollar e implementar intervenciones políticas que cultiven estas experiencias en los individuos, en su adopción de unos estilos de vida más sostenibles. Analizamos los siguientes aspectos del vegetarianismo: su relación con el bienestar subjetivo, el papel que desempeña la conexión con la naturaleza sobre la relación anterior y la influencia del compromiso ambiental sobre la adherencia vegetariana con el fin de favorecer el bienestar individual y colectivo. En la presente tesis, el concepto del bienestar colectivo se emplea para englobar el bienestar ecológico, el bienestar animal y la prosperidad de la sociedad y las generaciones futuras. Más concretamente, primero estudiamos la correlación entre el compromiso vegetariano, evaluando la relación de la identidad vegetariana y personas que siguen una dieta con una alta escala vegetariana, con sus niveles del bienestar subjetivo - interpretado como satisfacción con la vida, bienestar emocional y vitalidad subjetiva - y comparamos los resultados con el estado de los omnívoros. En segundo lugar, examinamos el papel que desempeña la conexión con la naturaleza en la relación anterior entre el compromiso vegetariano y el bienestar subjetivo. Y finalmente, analizamos la influencia del comportamiento pro-ambiental sobre la adherencia vegetariana a corto y largo plazo (consistencia y continuidad con la dieta reducida en carne) de personas con un consumo de carne reducido en relación con la conexión con la naturaleza y la orientación política, para así poder identificar los factores que fomenten la adherencia vegetariana a lo largo del tiempo. La principal innovación de esta tesis a la literatura científica radica en que estudiamos el vegetarianismo, diferenciando la identidad vegetariana (factor psicológico) de la escala vegetariana (comportamiento actual) en relación con las tres dimensiones del bienestar subjetivo (satisfacción con la vida, bienestar emocional y vitalidad subjetiva) explorando así los aspectos cognitivos, hedónicos y eudaimónicos del bienestar, en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios en España. También, según nuestro conocimiento, es la primera vez que se ha empleado en la literatura la conexión con la naturaleza como un medio para comprender mejor la relación entre el bienestar subjetivo y el vegetarianismo, así como el compromiso pro-ambiental como predictor de la adherencia vegetariana. A continuación, resumimos los antecedentes más relevantes que dieron origen al desarrollo de la presente tesis y al planteamiento de las hipótesis correspondientes. Empezando por la definición del vegetarianismo, destacamos que es una materia con un alto componente multifacético, dada su naturaleza dinámica que abarca perspectivas políticas, éticas, sociales, ambientales y humanas. Sin embargo, el vegetarianismo se puede comprender como una transición dietética que contribuye a construir sociedades más saludables, conscientes y evolucionadas, a través de la reducción del consumo de animales, priorizando alimentos frescos a base de plantas convirtiéndose en una forma de vida (Lea, Crawford & Worsley, 2006; Shapiro, 2015; Nezlek, Forestell & Newman, 2018). Desde la perspectiva ambiental, el vegetarianismo contribuye con el mantenimiento óptimo de la salud planetaria, gracias a una dieta baja en productos de origen animal, y ofrece una dieta sostenible capaz de reducir la contaminación de agua y suelos, así como frenar la pérdida de la biodiversidad y contribuir hacia otros desafíos asociados con los sistemas de producción masivos de alimentos basados en carne y su creciente demanda (Pimentel & Pimentel, 2003; Hallström, Röös & Börjesson, 2014; Álvaro, 2017). Además, a nivel individual, encontramos diversas fuentes que afirman que una dieta vegetariana equilibrada es beneficiosa para la salud humana durante todas las etapas de vida, aportando una mayor vitalidad y reduciendo la mortalidad (Janda & Trocchia, 2001; Nobis, 2008; Álvaro, 2017). A nivel social, el vegetarianismo influye positivamente sobre los derechos de los animales, el bienestar y la reducción del hambre en el mundo (Kalof et al., 1999) y también contribuye a reducir los gastos relacionados con la salud pública, debido a una dieta más saludable y sostenible (Maurer, 2010; Springmann et al., 2016). Desde la perspectiva ético-política, el vegetarianismo desafía la ideología alimentaria dominante, creando un vehículo de emancipación social y cultural (Jabs, Sobal & Devine, 2000; Morris & Kirwan, 2006). También, el ciudadano-consumidor vegetariano ejerce una fuerza capaz de crear un cambio social mediante la compra ética de alimentos y boicot incrementando su responsabilidad colectiva (Micheletti, 2003; Johnston, 2008). De esta forma, el consumidor responsable participa en la creación de procesos de producción más justos y sociedades más sostenibles para aliviar cuestiones de crecimiento económico desigual, desafío ambiental e injusticia social global (Guthman, 2003; Sassatelli & Davolio, 2010; Johnston, Szabo & Rodney, 2011; Ghvanidze et al., 2016). Por lo tanto, en lo que respecta al bienestar colectivo, el vegetarianismo desempeña un papel positivo importante en una mejor gestión de nuestros recursos naturales y sociales. Sin embargo, el compromiso vegetariano conlleva que las personas transformen gradualmente su identidad personal. Es decir, una persona vegetariana adopta un nuevo sistema de creencias, apoyado en unas motivaciones éticas que alientan a percibir el mundo de una forma más reflexiva, y se distancia de la cultura dominante (Twigg 1979; Beardsworth & Keil, 1992; Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017a). En consecuencia, a pesar de que los vegetarianos generalmente posean un mayor bienestar físico y compromiso pro-colectivo, éstos tienden a experimentar estados emocionales distantes de la felicidad (Baines, Powers & Brown, 2007; Michalak, Zhang & Jacobi, 2012; MacInnis & Hodson, 2017; Forestell & Nezlek, 2018), lo cual hace que el vínculo con el bienestar subjetivo se vuelva más complejo. Por un lado, la relación entre el vegetarianismo y la salud física es positiva cuando se sigue una dieta equilibrada, conduciendo a mayores niveles de salud, longevidad y reducción de enfermedades. No obstante, cuando el vegetarianismo es consecuencia de un trastorno alimentario, la asociación con el bienestar físico y psicológico se convierte en negativa (Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1997; Lindeman & Stark, 1999; Lindeman, 2002; Timko, Hormes & Chubski, 2012; Zuromski et al., 2015). Cuando estudiamos el vegetarianismo como una dieta saludable en relación con el bienestar subjetivo, ésta tiende a ser positiva (Weinstein & Anton, 1982; Blanchflower, Oswald & Stewart-Brown, 2013; Agarwal et al., 2015; Mujcic & Oswald, 2016; Conner et al., 2017; Jain et al., 2020). Sin embargo, encontramos la tendencia contraria cuando abordamos el vegetarianismo desde la perspectiva de la identidad vegetariana internalizada. Aquí encontramos evidencia que sugiere que ser vegetariano conduce a niveles reducidos del bienestar subjetivo (Baines, Powers & Brown, 2007; Michalak, Zhang & Jacobi, 2012; MacInnis & Hodson, 2017; Forestell & Nezlek, 2018; Lavallee et al., 2019) con una minoría de casos de evidencia positiva (Link, Hussaini & Jacobson, 2008; Beezhold & Johnston, 2012). Teniendo en cuenta los múltiples beneficios del vegetarianismo sobre el bienestar colectivo, creemos que es importante analizar con más profundidad la compleja relación del vegetarianismo con el bienestar subjetivo, lo que constituye la base para la presente investigación. Por lo tanto, abordamos la problemática desde la perspectiva de la relación con el entorno exterior y otros seres vivos, dado que la evidencia anterior sugiere correlaciones positivas entre las personas relacionadas con la naturaleza y los estilos de vida vegetarianos, que son más compasivos y respetuosos con el planeta (Twigg 1976; Beardsworth & Keil , 1992; Fox, 2000; Fox & Ward, 2008) y señala posibles vías para elevar los niveles del bienestar subjetivo (Ericson et al., 2014). Además, el vegetarianismo puede servir como un medio para encontrar el propósito de vida o incluso lograr un objetivo más grande para las personas que estén relacionadas con la naturaleza (Nisbet, Zelenski & Murphy, 2011; Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017b). Considerando la influencia positiva de la conexión con la naturaleza para el bienestar individual y colectivo, aplicamos este enfoque para comprender mejor la felicidad vegetariana. Pero de nada nos serviría promover la dieta vegetariana por su alto componente pro-ambiental y saludable si las personas no se comprometen a reducir su consumo de carne de forma consistente y duradera. Es más, la mayoría de los vegetarianos confiesan haber comido carne desde que adoptaron este estilo de vida. Reconocemos ciertas lagunas en la literatura sobre la adherencia vegetariana, donde identificarse con la identidad vegetariana no garantiza la reducción real del consumo de carne, y encontramos que una adherencia vegetariana baja pone en peligro la sostenibilidad propuesta por el vegetarianismo (Ruby, 2012; Rosenfeld & Tomiyama, 2020). En consecuencia, consideramos de vital importancia analizar factores distintos de la identidad vegetariana que promuevan la consistencia a corto plazo y la continuidad a largo plazo con las dietas reducidas en carne. Nuestra atención aquí se dirige en estudiar la relación desde la perspectiva del compromiso ambiental, puesto que los vegetarianos tienden a relacionarse mejor con el medio ambiente que otras identidades. En este sentido, resaltamos que la adherencia a la dieta vegetariana es esencial para un bienestar colectivo duradero porque sin un consumo reducido de carne real, todas las premisas ecológicas del vegetarianismo se convierten en creencias teóricas que no se traducen en estrategias efectivas para preservar el planeta. En este caso, no solamente nos enfrentamos a un bienestar colectivo amenazado, sino también a la percepción negativa de los omnívoros hacia los vegetarianos que se podría intensificar aún más a causa de una débil adherencia vegetariana (Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2017a) y disminuir la intención de las personas de continuar con una dieta sostenible. Además se podría incrementar la disonancia cognitiva si existe un conflicto entre la identidad personal y el comportamiento real a favor del consumo de carne (Bastian & Loughnan, 2017) a pesar de su devastador impacto en el medio ambiente, otros seres vivos y la salud humana. Por lo tanto, otro de nuestros objetivos es examinar la influencia del comportamiento pro-ambiental para concebir mejor la adherencia a la dieta vegetariana y, posiblemente, proporcionar un planteamiento simplificado para apoyar esta dieta sostenible y contribuir al bienestar individual y colectivo desde un enfoque ecológico. Desde nuestra perspectiva, el aspecto más importante dentro la investigación sobre el bienestar podría plasmarse en su interconexión con los aspectos individuales y colectivos donde los individuos puedan construir y seguir un modelo sólido hacia el logro de mayores niveles de felicidad individual y ayudar simultáneamente al bienestar ecológico y social (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Por lo tanto, en la presente tesis investigamos el aspecto del vegetarianismo en relación con el bienestar subjetivo, la conexión con la naturaleza, el comportamiento pro-ambiental y la adherencia vegetariana desde la perspectiva de los vegetarianos en España, con el fin de enriquecer el conocimiento actual sobre el vegetarianismo e identificar herramientas más efectivas para políticas públicas ambientales. Con ello respaldaríamos simultáneamente los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible diseñados por Las Naciones Unidas para contrarrestar los desafíos más imperativos de nuestra sociedad actual dentro del alcance del bienestar humano, la degradación ambiental, el clima, el hambre en el mundo, la desigualdad, la paz y la justicia (The United Nations, 2020). Además, es importante abordar las principales motivaciones que posee la autora para presentar esta tesis. Personalmente, como vegetariana y como persona conectada con la naturaleza, creo que este camino hacia un bienestar común puede proporcionar a la humanidad y al medio ambiente con nuevos recursos para crear estilos de vida prósperos para las generaciones presentes y venideras. El elemento clave que fundamenta mi decisión, no solo de adoptar, sino también de continuar como vegetariana, es la voluntad de proteger la integridad de nuestro bienestar individual y colectivo al experimentar el vegetarianismo como un movimiento, una forma de vida y una cultura más consciente. De esta forma podemos generar un impacto directo en la conciencia ecológica humana que se transfiere a otros patrones del consumo de la sociedad actual que habita mayormente en espacios urbanos. A la luz de estas razones, he construido la base motivadora de esta tesis doctoral y contribuido a difundir la conciencia sobre el paradigma vegetariano entre las esferas académicas. En base a los objetivos establecidos así como a los antecedentes que fundamentan esta investigación, formulamos las siguientes hipótesis. Primero, esperamos una relación negativa entre el compromiso vegetariano, medido como identidad y escala vegetarianas, y el bienestar subjetivo que variaría según el indicador de felicidad bajo consideración. Segundo, estimamos que la conexión con la naturaleza modera la relación entre el vegetarianismo y el bienestar subjetivo. Y tercero, planteamos que el comportamiento pro-ambiental predice la adherencia vegetariana, medida en la consistencia actual y la intención futura de continuar con una dieta reducida en carne. Además, presumimos que el comportamiento pro-ambiental media la relación de la adherencia vegetariana con la conexión con la naturaleza y la orientación política. En cuanto a la metodología aplicada en la presente tesis, trabajamos sobre una base de datos nueva compuesta por 1068 estudiantes de distintas modalidades de grado en la Universidad de Granada que completaron un cuestionario online en el segundo trimestre de 2019. Para contrastar las hipótesis 1 y 2 analizamos la muestra global mientras que para la hipótesis 3 trabajamos con la muestra seleccionando solamente los perfiles de flexitarianos y vegetarianos (en total 227 participantes). En los análisis de la estadística descriptiva empleamos el coeficiente de Pearson para comprobar la homogeneidad de nuestros datos en respecto a la media. En lo que se refiere a la relación entre el vegetarianismo, la conexión con la naturaleza y el bienestar subjetivo (las hipótesis 1 y 2) realizamos un análisis de regresión lineal utilizando el método de mínimos cuadrados ordinarios y especificamos un modelo diferente escalonado para cada dimensión del bienestar. El análisis de los datos se realizó con el software estadístico Stata15. Para testear la hipótesis 3, analizamos los predictores de la intención de continuar con una dieta reducida en carne en un futuro cercano (1-2 años) y la consistencia con la dieta en los últimos tres días previos a la encuesta. Para ello realizamos una regresión logística jerárquica y una regresión de mínimos cuadrados ordinarios, respectivamente, controlando la identidad alimentaria de los perfiles flexitarianos versus vegetarianos. Además de los modelos de regresión, llevamos a cabo unos análisis de mediación para identificar si el comportamiento pro-ambiental actúa como un agente mediador de la relación entre la conexión con la naturaleza y/u orientación política con la adherencia vegetariana. El análisis de datos se realizó con el software estadístico R. A continuación resumimos los resultados de mayor relevancia obtenidos de nuestras estimaciones. La hipótesis 1 puede aceptarse para la dimensión de la satisfacción con la vida teniendo en cuenta la escala vegetariana y la identidad de los flexitarianos. En cuanto al bienestar emocional, la hipótesis 1 también es cierta para la identidad de los lacto-pesco vegetarianos. Sin embargo, nuestros hallazgos demuestran que los veganos no experimentan niveles reducidos del bienestar cognitivo o emocional, lo que va en contra de nuestra hipótesis. Además, encontramos que los veganos son más vitales que otras identidades, lo que complementa trabajos previos (Conner et al., 2017). Con respecto a la identidad vegetariana, nuestros resultados apoyan trabajos anteriores que detectaron diferencias en la evidencia asignando resultados tanto positivos como negativos en el vínculo entre el vegetarianismo y el bienestar subjetivo (Beezhold & Johnston, 2012; Forestell & Nezlek, 2018; Lavallee et al. , 2019). Dado que la hipótesis 1 no se pudo aceptar para todas las identidades vegetarianas, nuestros resultados confirman la necesidad de seguir las sugerencias de previos trabajos para analizar los resultados entre veganos, flexitarianos y omnívoros por separado (Timko, Hormes & Chubski, 2012; Rosenfeld 2018). Para contrastar la hipótesis 2 abordamos el efecto combinado del vegetarianismo y la conexión con la naturaleza a través de las interacciones. Los resultados demuestran que las personas altamente conectadas con la naturaleza y siguiendo una dieta con alta escala vegetariana experimentan una vitalidad subjetiva más fuerte. Además, nuestros hallazgos sugieren que la identidad vegana obtiene un mayor bienestar subjetivo en sus facetas de la satisfacción con la vida y la vitalidad subjetiva cuando se establezca una fuerte conexión con la naturaleza. La identidad de los lacto-pesco vegetarianos, que en la hipótesis 1 estaba asociada con un menor bienestar emocional, experimenta en las nuevas estimaciones un mayor bienestar afectivo si se relaciona fuertemente con la naturaleza. Los modelos indican que un mayor nivel de conexión con la naturaleza es aproximadamente 4 sobre una escala del 1 al 5, pero en el caso de los lacto-pesco vegetarianos, el nivel de conexión con la naturaleza debe ser muy elevado (las estimaciones indican 4.9). En lo que respecta la hipótesis 3, nuestro estudio reveló tres hallazgos fundamentales. Primero, el comportamiento pro-ambiental predice positivamente la adherencia vegetariana, tanto en términos de la consistencia a corto plazo como de la intención a largo plazo para continuar con la adherencia a la dieta reducida en carne. En segundo lugar, el comportamiento pro-ambiental media el vínculo entre la conexión con la naturaleza y la adherencia vegetariana, explicando por qué las personas que se sienten más conectadas con la naturaleza se comprometen más fuerte con la dieta reducida en carne y tienen mayor probabilidad de querer continuar con esta dieta en el futuro cercano (mediación completa). Tercero, el comportamiento pro-ambiental también media el vínculo entre la orientación política y la adherencia vegetariana, explicando por qué las personas más de izquierdas se adhieren de forma más comprometida con una dieta reducida en carne (mediación parcial) que las personas más de las derechas, y también tienen más probabilidad de continuar con su dieta reducida en carne en el futuro cercano (mediación completa). Por lo tanto, hemos hallado que el comportamiento pro-ambiental es un predictor único de la adherencia vegetariana en sus ambas facetas, por encima de los efectos de la motivación, conveniencia y aspectos demográficos, lo que nos proporciona implicaciones prometedoras sobre cómo promover el compromiso de las personas con las dietas vegetarianas con un mayor éxito. Nuestros datos sugieren que una estrategia efectiva para promover que las personas se adhieran a las dietas vegetarianas es hacerles valorar y participar en comportamiento pro-ambiental más en general, es decir, apreciar y realizar actividades que beneficien la salud global del planeta. Una implicación interesante de este resultado es que no necesitamos motivar a las personas explícitamente a seguir una dieta vegetariana para aumentar su adherencia vegetariana. Nuestros resultados tienen una interpretación política directa. En primer lugar, la difusión que el vegetarianismo es beneficioso para el medio ambiente debería ir acompañada de acciones que al mismo tiempo aumenten la conexión de las personas con la naturaleza para experimentar un mayor bienestar subjetivo. Esto está respaldado por la evidencia que sugiere que al adoptar estilos de vida más conectados con la naturaleza, uno puede alcanzar un mayor sentido en la vida (Michalak et al. 2012; Forestell & Nezlek 2018). En consecuencia, las culturas más conscientes pueden fomentar el bienestar de las personas y la satisfacción con la vida (Dhandra, 2019), lo que hemos comprobado desde la perspectiva vegetariana. En segundo lugar, nuestros hallazgos simplifican las intervenciones políticas que buscan promover estilos de vida sostenibles que además pueden enriquecen a las personas vegetarianas con mayores niveles de bienestar subjetivo. Asimismo, dentro de las diversas interpretaciones políticas, mencionamos por último la difusión de una cultura orientada hacia la naturaleza donde la conexión con el hábitat natural fomenta en algunas casos el bienestar subjetivo vegetariano, y un mayor compromiso pro-ambiental fortalece la adherencia vegetariana mejorando así el bienestar colectivo a largo plazo. Esto podría resultar de interés especialmente en áreas urbanas donde la experiencia de conexión individual con la naturaleza es reducida, lo que ejerce una influencia negativa tanto en el bienestar individual como colectivo (Nisbet, Zelenski & Murphy, 2011). Por lo tanto, a través del vegetarianismo y su interconexión implícita con el entorno natural (Fox, 2000), podríamos apoyar actividades sostenibles en ciudades como la jardinería ecológica y crear nuevos espacios para la participación de comunidades locales mejorando la cooperación a nivel social y ambiental así como la consistencia con la dieta vegetariana en el tiempo. En conclusión, el vegetarianismo constituye no solo una dieta, sino también una forma de vida y un movimiento social actualmente en expansión en todo el mundo. En la presente investigación hemos identificado que el vínculo de la felicidad vegetariana es un asunto complejo por sus matices interconectados con los factores personales, sociales y relacionales (objetivo 1). Descubrimos que la experiencia de una mayor conexión con la naturaleza puede proporcionar una posible compensación por los niveles disminuidos de bienestar subjetivo en perfiles vegetarianos específicos (objetivo 2). Además, al promover el comportamiento pro-ambiental, la preocupación por el bienestar animal y la conveniencia de preparar platos vegetarianos, podríamos fortalecer la adherencia vegetariana a corto y largo plazo, así como la solidez en la autonomía que son necesarias para un compromiso exitoso con el vegetarianismo (objetivo 3). Creemos que nuestros nuevos hallazgos considerando el compendio de vegetarianismo, compromiso ambiental, la felicidad y la adherencia a la dieta vegetariana pueden constituir la base para futuras investigaciones sobre el tema del vegetarianismo, examinando no solo la influencia de la identidad reflexiva de los vegetarianos, sino también su conciencia de la relación que tengan con la naturaleza que, a su vez, puede apoyar una implementación más efectiva de políticas públicas para la preservación ambiental y gestión del bienestar general. Al hacer que las personas se sientan más conectadas con la naturaleza, pueden aumentar sus niveles de bienestar subjetivo, que también interactúa positivamente con la capacidad de algunos perfiles vegetarianos de experimentar felicidad. Además, sentirse más conectado con la naturaleza refuerza la participación de las personas en el comportamiento pro-ambiental, que a su vez incrementa la adherencia vegetariana. 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